mesopotamia sailboat video

Mesopotamian Reed Boats Changed the Stone Age

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• Ancient Civilizations
• Excavations
• History of Animal and Plant Domestication
• M.A., Anthropology, University of Iowa
• B.Ed., Illinois State University

Mesopotamian reed boats constitute the earliest known evidence for deliberately constructed sailing ships, dated to the early Neolithic Ubaid culture of Mesopotamia , about 5500 B.C.E. The small, masted Mesopotamian boats are believed to have facilitated minor but significant long-distance trade between the emerging villages of the Fertile Crescent and the Arabian Neolithic communities of the Persian Gulf. Boatmen followed the Tigris and Euphrates rivers down into the Persian Gulf and along the coasts of Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Qatar. The first evidence of Ubaidian boat traffic into the Persian Gulf was recognized in the mid-20th century when examples of Ubaidian pottery were found in scores of coastal Persian gulf sites.

However, it is best to keep in mind that the history of sea-faring is quite ancient. Archaeologists are convinced that both the human settlement of Australia (about 50,000 years ago) and the Americas (about 20,000 years ago) must have been assisted by some sort of watercraft to assist moving people along the coastlines and across large bodies of water. It is quite likely that we will find older ships than those of Mesopotamia. Scholars are not even necessarily certain that Ubaid boat-making originated there. But at present, the Mesopotamian boats are the oldest known.

Ubaid Boats, the Mesopotamian Ships

Archaeologists have assembled quite a bit of evidence about the ships themselves. Ceramic boat models have been found at numerous Ubaid sites, including Ubaid, Eridu , Oueili, Uruk , Uqair, and Mashnaqa, as well as at the Arabian Neolithic sites of H3 located on the northern coast of Kuwait and Dalma in Abu Dhabi. Based on the boat models, the boats were similar in form to bellums (spelled bellams in some texts) used today on the Persian Gulf: small, canoe-shaped boats with upturned and sometimes elaborately decorated bow tips.

Unlike wooden planked bellams, Ubaid ships were made from bundles of reeds roped together and covered with a thick layer of bituminous material for water-proofing. An impression of string on one of several bitumen slabs found at H3 suggests that the boats may have had a lattice of ropes stretched across the hull, similar to that used in later Bronze Age ships from the region.

In addition, bellams are usually pushed along by poles, and at least some of the Ubaid boats were apparently had masts to enable them to hoist sails to catch the wind. An image of a boat on a reworked Ubaid 3 sherd (a ceramic fragment) at the H3 site in coastal Kuwait had two masts.

Trade Items

Very few explicitly Ubaidian artifacts have been found in the Arabian Neolithic sites apart from bitumen chunks, black-on-buff pottery, and boat effigies, and those are fairly rare. Trade items might have been perishables, perhaps textiles or grain, but the trade efforts were likely minimal, consisting of small boats dropping in at Arabian coastal towns. It was a fairly long distance between the Ubaid communities and the Arabian coastline, approximately 450 kilometers (280 miles) between Ur and Kuwait. Trade does not seem to have played a significant role in either culture.

It is possible that the trade included bitumen, a type of asphalt. Bitumen tested from Early Ubaid Chogha Mish, Tell el'Oueili, and Tell Sabi Abyad all come from a wide variety of different sources. Some come from northwestern Iran, northern Iraq, and southern Turkey. Bitumen from H3 was identified as having an origin at Burgan Hill in Kuwait. Some of the other Arabian Neolithic sites in the Persian Gulf imported their bitumen from the Mosul area of Iraq, and it is possible that boats were involved in that. Lapis lazuli, turquoise, and copper were exotics in the Mesopotamian Ubaid sites that potentially could have been imported, in small amounts, using boat traffic.

Boat Repair and Gilgamesh

Bitumen caulking of the reed boats was made by applying a heated mixture of bitumen, vegetal matter, and mineral additives and allowing it to dry and cool to a tough, elastic covering. Unfortunately, that had to be replaced frequently. Hundreds of slabs of reed-impressed bitumen have been recovered from several sites in the Persian Gulf. It may be that the H3 site in Kuwait represents a place where boats were repaired, although no additional evidence (such as woodworking tools) was recovered to support that.

Interestingly, reed boats are an important part of Near Eastern mythologies. In the Mesopotamian Gilgamesh myth,  Sargon the Great of Akkad is described as having floated as an infant in a bitumen-coated reed basket down the Euphrates River. This must be the original form of the legend found in the Old Testament book of Exodus where the infant Moses floated down the Nile in a reed basket daubed with bitumen and pitch.

Carter, Robert A. (Editor). "Beyond the Ubaid: Transformation and Integration in the Late Prehistoric Societies of the Middle East." Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilizations, Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, September 15, 2010.

Connan, Jacques. "An overview of bitumen trade in the Near East from the Neolithic (c.8000 BC) to the early Islamic period." Thomas Van de Velde, Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy, Wiley Online Library, April 7, 2010.

Oron, Asaf. "Early Maritime Activity on the Dead Sea: Bitumen Harvesting and the Possible Use of Reed Watercraft." Ehud Galili, Gideon Hadas, et al., Journal of Maritime Archaeology, Volume 10, Issue 1, The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System, April 2015.

Stein, Gil J. "Oriental Institute 2009-2010 Annual Report." Oriental Institute, The University of Chicago, 2009-2010, Chicago, IL.

Wilkinson, T. J. (Editor). "Models of Mesopotamian Landscapes: How small-scale processes contributed to the growth of early civilizations." BAR International Series, McGuire Gibson (Editor), Magnus Widell (Editor), British Archaeological Reports, October 20, 2013.

• The Archaeology and History of Bitumen
• Fast Facts About Mesopotamia
• Timeline and Advances of the Mesopotamian Society
• Ubaidian Culture
• Eridu (Iraq): The Earliest City in Mesopotamia and the World
• Uruk Period Mesopotamia: The Rise of Sumer
• Kuwait | Facts and History
• The Tigris River of Ancient Mesopotamia
• Tell Brak - Mesopotamian Capital in Syria
• An Introduction to Sumerian Art and Culture
• The Most Important Rivers of Ancient History
• An Introduction to Sumer in Ancient History
• What Was the Fertile Crescent?
• Uruk - Mesopotamian Capital City in Iraq
• The Tell Asmar Sculpture Hoard of Prayerful People
• Ancient City of Ur

Ancient Mesopotamia Sailboats: An Introduction

• Categories : Marine history
• Tags : Marine engineering

Five thousand years ago Mesopotamians started using sailing boats. Since Mesopotamia was situated between two famous rivers, namely the Euphrates and the Tigris, they needed water transportation for travel and trade. Some of the important items they are credited with inventing include wheels, chariots, sailboats and cuneiform (the earliest form of writing). These are just some of the contributions by the Mesopotamians to the modern world. All this and more was around four to five thousand years ago. Let’s explore more about the important role of sailboats in their culture.

Why Did the Mesopotamians Need Sailboats?

A civilization flourishes based on its trade and commerce, and Mesopotamia was no exception. They wanted to set up trade relationships with nearby cities and countries. These were in the days before road routes were built making transportation of goods by land routes hectic and difficult. Therefore, they had to figure out an alternative mode of transportation for goods and people. This came in the form of water transportation, and thus the first boats were invented.

They were simple wooden boats that would carry people and goods downstream and then back upstream. But boats need people to navigate and guide them across rough waters, so the solution of having a vessel carry their goods and people had to be refined. Thus sailboats were invented. They were primitive in design, but the sailboats helped the Mesopotamians in trade and commerce.

They also helped in irrigation and fishing. Mesopotamians had mastered the art of fishing. They would go downstream using sailboats, cast their nets, stay, wait and return with the catch. Thus the sailboats of Mesopotamia helped the Mesopotamians establish trade relationships with other cities and countries, making them one of most famous civilizations to flourish and change the course of history with their inventions.

How were the Sailboats of Mesopotamians Made?

The sailboats of Mesopotamia were simple in design; the sails were square in shape and made of cloth. The angle and direction of the sails coul not be changed. If the wind blew in the direction that the sailboats desired to go, things went well. If that wasn’t the case, they had to wait for the wind to blow in their favor!

The hull or the body of the boat was made of wood. Trees were cut and made into planks, and the planks were roughly shaped and joined together to make the body of the boat. Though they couldn’t handle lots of cargo or people at a given time, they could do better than what other sailing vessels of that time had to offer. The design work they did on their sailboats provided the basis for all future sailboats, even five thousand years later.

Until the fall of Mesopotamian civilization, not many changes were made to the basic design of the sailboat. This crucial invention largely helped in making Mesopotamian civilization a great empire and civilization along with the society’s other contributions.

Mesopotamia gave the world incredible contributions like wheels, cuneiform, sailboats, glass making, textile weaving and a lot more, truly making them one of the greatest civilizations ever to walk on this planet. Their sailboats were as simple as they needed to be, but they introduced plank construction and square sails. Even though the vessels were of limited capacity, these ships revolutionized water travel. The basic design of their sailboats is still in use even today.

• Image Credit: Flickr
• Image Credit: Wikipedia

Episode 001 - Boating with the Ubaid People

And here we go! In this first episode, we'll journey to ancient Mesopotamia and meet the Ubaid people, the first people to settle southern Mesopotamia. We'll see how the Ubaid people overcame the environment by instituting complex irrigations systems tied to the might rivers Tigris and Euphrates. We'll also see how the Ubaid people used reeds, their most abundant natural resource, to build a wide range of useful items, including houses and boats. We'll meet some modern-day descendants of the Ubaid people and see how their way of life can inform our understanding of the past. All that, and more, in Episode 001 - Boating with the Ubaid People.

Episode Transcript

Welcome aboard for Episode One, where we’ll see how the first sailors in recorded history were also farmers. I know that might sound strange to hear at first, but it’s true as we’ll have seen by the end of this episode. Our narrative begins in Mesopotamia, an area that is oftentimes referred to as the “cradle of civilization.” Since it almost goes without saying that water is integral to the survival and growth of any society, it’s apparent from the start that Mesopotamia is an ideal location for a nascent people group to settle. The name of this geographic area, Mesopotamia, comes to us as many modern names do, from the ancient Greek. The Greeks liked to name things in a literal yet descriptive way, it seems: the word comes from the Greek root words meso- for “middle” and potamos for “river,” so the Greeks aptly called the region a word that means “land between rivers.” The rivers are the Tigris and Euphrates, rivers that flow from north to south and eventually merge into a marshland that ultimately drains into the Persian Gulf. 

The presence of humans in this area of the world stretches far back into prehistory, it’s tough to actually put a date on it to be honest. Rather than quibble about a date that seems reasonable, let’s just dive right in and meet the people whose culture presents the earliest evidence of watercraft from Mesopotamia, they are first found in connection with the pre-historic period that’s been called the Ubaid period. In this and any future talks, I’ll use the term ‘Ubaid’ to refer to the people group as a culture, but it is also the name of a settlement site in the region, and it is the label affixed to the historical period when the Ubaid people were present in southern Mesopotamia.

Quickly though, before we discuss the Ubaid people’s relation to maritime history, let’s briefly look at where they came from and why they are considered to be among the first major players on the historical stage.

The predecessors of the Ubaid people have been called the Samarra culture, a culture that existed in the mid-section of modern-day Iraq. They were among the first who began to use irrigation as a method to improve their agricultural output. During the Samarra period small settlements emerged as the farming peoples banded together, but none of the settlements would be considered large, to any extent. Nor was the Samarra culture the only culture to have populated the various locales around Mesopotamia and the Middle East as a whole, many different farming cultures were sprinkled around the area. Although some trade occurred among these early farmers, trade was land-based and contained to the middle and northern regions of modern-day Iraq.

 The main area that had not been settled was the area further south in Mesopotamia, the alluvial plain where the Tigris and Euphrates drain into the Persian Gulf. Gradually, in the several centuries surrounding 5000 BC, the Samarra culture gave way to the Ubaid culture, a culture whose people were the first to move south and make southern Mesopotamia their home. There, they took advantage of the fertile conditions to further improve agricultural production, a result that in turn led to the establishment of early permanent settlements in southern Mesopotamia.

Now, while there are many fascinating rabbit trails to explore when it comes to the Ubaid people and the development of society, civilization, and culture, our main focus here is on maritime history, so I’ll try to keep it focused on the background elements most closely related to the maritime aspects of history.

One of those background elements that will crop up in relation to each place and time we’ll gradually discuss involves local ecology, climate, and natural resources, all things that played a huge role in the early development of the Ubaid people. The region bordering the Persian Gulf can be quite dry, despite the high water table, but the Ubaid people managed to institute a complex system of canal works. They used this system to harness the life-giving water of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, diverting the amount necessary to irrigate their crops and to grow grain.

The aridity of southern Mesopotamia didn’t just make crop growth difficult, it also kept the region from being well forested. Because the Ubaid people lacked a sufficient wood supply to make timber their main building material, they quite naturally opted to use the most prevalent natural resource in their area. In Mesopotamia, and particularly in the region where the Tigris and Euphrates meet the Persian Gulf, that natural resource was, and still is, the reed that grows in marsh-like environments. Generally, these reeds are quite sturdy and can grow to lengths of up to 15 feet. Now if you’re wanting to build a boat, 15 feet of reed gives you a fair amount of material to work with, it would allow you to construct a decent sized vessel without even having to combine reeds for purposes of achieving greater length. As we talk about reed boats here, let’s keep in mind the fact that ancient cultures did use wood to make boats, but reed-boats were the most common type of boat in the region we’re currently discussing. In later episodes we’ll certainly look at examples of wooden boats built by other ancient cultures, but for now we will focus on the early evidence of reed boats.

The Ubaid people grew adept at using reeds for a variety of uses, even using them to build dwellings and entire floating villages. A great example of this type of culture and what it would have looked like can be seen in the still existent culture that occupies the same region where the Ubaid and Sumerian people originally flourished. This modern people group is known as either the Ma’dan, or also the Marsh Arabs. They live in villages that are made completely of reed and float on the marshy water in Iraq’s southeast region. This culture is fascinating to me personally, and on a more recent note, in the 1990s, sectarian religious persecution by Sadam Hussein’s government forced many of the Marsh Arabs from their homes. The government diverted the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in a way that caused the marshes where the they lived to dry up, in turn causing their food supply to vanish, a result that forced a large percentage of the Marsh Arabs to become refugees. Although the marshes have gradually been revived in recent years, allowing some of the people to return to their way of life, many are still refugees, and I encourage you to do some research of your own if their plight piques your interest.

Anyhow, after that rabbit trail that I think you’ll forgive me for, let’s get back to the Ubaid people and their use of the reed. Now, actually, in defense of my little foray to discuss the Marsh Arabs, it does relate to our discussion of reed boat construction, and in a way that British explorer and travel writer/photographer Sir Wilifred Thesiger can help explain. Thesiger wrote a great book detailing the time that he spent living amongst the Marsh Arabs during the 1950s and 60s, and in the book there’s a passage that describes his observations of an Arab man building a reed boat, using the same technique that was most likely used by his ancestors of millennia ago. Thesiger described the reed-boat construction this way:

First he made half a dozen tight bundles of five or six qasab reeds rather longer than the length of the proposed boat, and fastened them securely together side by side to form the keel, eighteen inches free at both ends, which he bent upwards. He next bent five long reed into the shape of a U, passed the middle among the loose ends of the keel, and laced them back to the keel itself. He repeated the process at either end alternatively, until he had built up the sides and ends of the hull. This framework he stiffened by tying into it a number of ribs made from two or three willow wands. Finally, he wedged three stout sticks across the boat as thwarts and secreted their ends in place with lumps of bitumen. Wilifred Thesiger, The Marsh Arabs (1964).

Before we get to the all important bitumen, it’s important to note that the man in Thesiger’s passage was busy constructing a coracle, (called a guffa in the Mesopotamian version) which is a boat that is round and reinforced by ribbing along the internal structure. The coracle is one common type of reed boat, but it is just as easy to build a reed boat in the more traditional, elongated canoe shape, and the Marsh Arabs still use reeds to build boats of both styles.

All right. I mentioned bitumen as being all important, and in the passage a minute ago it was the last thing that the boat builder added to his boat, so what’s the big deal with bitumen? And what is it, anyway? Bitumen is a naturally occurring substance that is quite similar to modern asphalt. It’s black and oily, but it’s also viscous and tar-like, so it makes a great sealant, among other uses. The Ubaids were the first people to use bitumen on a large scale, and although bitumen has a variety of uses, it is relevant to maritime history because they used it to ‘waterproof’ their reed houses and boats. They’d originally used mud to seal their reed constructions, but mud was a poor sealant that had to be reapplied constantly as it broke down. Bitumen, on the other hand, was impervious to moisture and maintenance-free, for the most part, so it proved a giant leap forward for the Ubaids in their quest to keep their boats and their houses in useful shape for long periods.

We know that bitumen became an important part of the Ubaid people’s societal growth thanks to a boat model that was found at As-Sabiyah, an archaeological site in modern-day Kuwait. At As-Sabiyah, archaeologists discovered traces of a stone architecture that indicated some settlement of the area. The site was tied to the Ubaid people because of the distinctive pottery by which most Ubaid sites have been identified. There, along with the Ubaid pottery evidence, archaeologists discovered a small ceramic boat model. It measures 14.5 cm long by 7 cm wide, with a current height of slightly more than 5 cm. I say ‘current height’ because the prow and stern of the boat are raised and were broken off at some point in history past. Without reading too far into this one single artifact, in it’s context, the boat model is indicative of the fact that the earliest of Mesopotamian settlers used boats, and that they traveled fairly large distances. The raised prow and stern of the boat are evidence that it is a model of a reed-boat, as reed boats typically have a curved prow and stern where the ends of the reeds are tied of and bent.

Because it is quite small and devoid of detail, the model leaves much to be desired in the way of evidence about their construction techniques. However, other artifacts uncovered at As-Sabiyah give us better insight into the Ubaid people’s boat construction. These other artifacts are a series of bitumen chunks, many of which bear reed impressions on one side, and barnacles on the other side. Since the pottery uncovered at As-Sabiyah does not show signs of having been submerged in water, the only logical explanation for the bitumen having barnacles on it is that a reed structure or artifact was covered in bitumen and then submerged in the sea for an appreciable length of time. Other evidence at the site tends to show that the bitumen likely came from a reed-boat of the kind that we have already seen were being used by the Ubaid people.

What does the evidence of a reed-boat in Kuwait tell us about the Ubaid people, then? Well, basically it tells us that before the Ubaid period gave way to the Sumerian Civilization with it’s larger cities which began to grow in earnest, the Ubaid people had begun to trade with the fishing communities that lined the Central Persian Gulf. If you are curious to see a map of the Ubaid related sites that have been identified so far in the Persian Gulf, take a look at the map below. When you’re looking at the map, keep in mind that in the time period we’re talking about, the Persian Gulf extended about 25 miles or 40 kilometers further to the north-west than it currently does, so in pre-Sumerian Mesopotamia the major cities that sprouted up (Eridu, Uruk, etc.) were much nearer the coastline than they are today.

The archaeological evidence at As-Sabiyah goes a long way to helping us see that the Ubaid people were adept at using reeds and bitumen to build the early reed-boats that were probably abundant in their society. It goes without saying that natural resources like that are degradable, and we’ve not really found any complete reed-boat artifacts to date, but we have found other indicators to help us chart out the locations where reed-boats were used. Although reed-boat evidence has been found at large distances from Mesopotamia, evidence of sailing technology does not show up until later in our narrative, for reasons that we’ll get into more fully next time, so it is likely that Ubaid boatmen kept close to the shore of the Persian Gulf or on the inland waterways while on their trading runs, a theory that is further bolstered by the fact that almost all of the Ubaid-period sites are found only on the western shore of the Persian Gulf.

Well, that does it for this episode, our one and only encounter with the somewhat mysterious Ubaid people. We’ve seen how they settled in southern Mesopotamia, how they pioneered the irrigation techniques that allowed their culture to flourish, and how they used their natural resources to construct basic boats. Be sure to tune in next time when we meet their successors and see how the growth of civilization and shifting social dynamics led to the first long-distance sea trade between civilizations.

• Bertman, Stephen,  Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia  (2003).
• Carter, R.A.,  Watercraft ,  in  A Companion to the Archaeology of the Near East 347 (D.T. Potts ed., 2012).
• Carter, Robert,  Excavations and Ubaid-Period Boat Remains at H3, As-Sabiyah (Kuwait) ,  in  INTERCULTURAL RELATIONS BETWEEN SOUTH AND SOUTHWEST ASIA. STUDIES IN COMMEMORATION OF E.C.L. DURING CASPERS (1934-1996) E. Olijdam & R.H. Spoor (eds.), BAR International Series 1826 (2008): 92-102.
• Casson, Lionel,  The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times  (1959).
• Fagan, Brian,  Beyond the Blue Horizon: How the Earliest Mariners Unlocked the Secrets of the Ocean  (2012).
• Johnstone, Paul,  The Sea-craft of Prehistory  (1980).
• McGrail, Seán,  Boats of the World: From the Stone Age to Medieval Times  (2009).
• McGrail, Seán,  Early Ships and Seafaring: Water Transport Beyond Europe (2015).
• Moorey, P.R.S.,  Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence  (1994).
• Thesiger, Wilifred,  The Marsh Arabs  (1964).

10 Responses

What an excellent lecture series! I’m looking forward to listening to them all! Truly a phenomenal job!

Thanks so much, Jay, both for the compliments and for listening! Glad to have you aboard. I hope you find that the episodes improve over time, as well 🙂

• Pingback: Week Five – The First Sumerian Dictator – AmeriConnell

Very enjoyable podcast so far, though I am only up to the second episode. The level of detail is wonderful.

I do have one question. You talked about the uses of naturally occurring bitumen in the boat making of the Ubaids and also for their reed houses, but it makes me wonder where they found it. The wikipedia article on asphalt refers to some natural sources, but none in the middle east that I can see. It seems it couldn’t have been too far away or their boats wouldn’t have been able to go far enough to acquire it. Bit of a chicken and egg problem?

Hi Joel, glad to have you aboard!

From what I’ve read and understand about bitumen, it’s quite ubiquitous in the region we’d call Mesopotamia. I can’t say specifically how it exists naturally other than to say that most references I’ve read describe it as an oily substance that bubbles from underground up to the surface and is collected there somehow. Perhaps it becomes more solid once it reaches the surface?

In any event, I’ll attach a map from an article about modern bitumen sources in the Near East in relation to ancient archaeological sites. That was pretty useful for me to see the distribution.

Only other thought for me is that the Mesopotamian boatmen generally stuck to rivers more than to the sea proper, so the bitumen was plentiful enough that they didn’t necessarily have to boat anywhere to find it. Granted, if we go back far enough in history the chicken and egg problem will certainly rear it’s head! 😉

Hi Brandon,

Thanks for the response.

You’ve got me addicted already. Just got through the Khufu Solar Boat episode and am absolutely enthralled. Really excellent. Your passion for the subject matter is obvious.

BTW, quick shout out to Doug at Literature and History for bringing this podcast to my attention.

I greatly appreciate the kind words, Joel. My passion still runs strong but my free time has sadly diminished a bit recently. Still working to get episodes out as I can, though, and encouraging words like yours are a great motivator for me 🙂

Awesome to hear that Doug and his amazing podcast steered you in my direction here. He’s a great dude and his podcast is just stellar, I feel like he’s set the bar for a lot of us independent history podcasters. I can’t ever hope to incorporate the tunes like he does, though…haha

The floating villages are amazing! At first in my head I pictured the floating markets in Bangkok, but this looks more like Venice to me!

I found ‘The Ark before Noah’ by Irving Finkel a very readable account of early coracle boat-building in Mesopotamia.

Your comment about the ancient coastline of the Persian Gulf maybe a bit ambiguous, but perhaps it was my reading of it that was at fault. As sea-level rose after the last ice age the Persian Gulf (i.e. the sea) advanced inland, so that the early communities of Eridu etc. which are now positioned close to the present-day coastline were then much further from the sea.

Dear all A bitumen is a natural substance which is exiting as a rock in North West of Iraq. It can be heated to make it a liquid and then coate the bottom part of boats or to built roads . Since byblion eara the first pavement was constructed in the world used such material. The local name of bitumen is gar . This name is still the same name since byblon time to nowadays

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Table of Contents

• Travel/Study

BIBLE HISTORY DAILY

Uncovering a 4,000-year-old mesopotamian boat.

Ancient boat uncovered from the ruins of Uruk

The Mesopotamian boat of Uruk during excavation. Courtesy German Archaeological Institute.

With archaeologists returning to Iraq, many finds are coming to light, including a 4,000-year-old Mesopotamian boat from the ancient Sumerian city of Uruk. According to a press release by the German Archaeological Institute , the boat was discovered largely intact by a joint German-Iraqi team. The Mesopotamian boat was constructed out of organic materials covered in bitumen, a substance made from crude oil and commonly used for waterproofing across Mesopotamia. This construction technique is similar to that used in the building of Noah’s ark (Genesis 6:14). Since the boat’s burial, however, the organic material has completely decomposed, leaving behind only the outer bitumen cover, which served to preserve the boat’s original shape and size.

FREE eBook: Life in the Ancient World . Craft centers in Jerusalem, family structure across Israel and ancient practices—from dining to makeup—through the Mediterranean world.

After uncovering the boat, the team set about photographing it and creating three-dimensional models using photogrammetry . The boat measures approximately 23 feet long and 4.5 feet wide. After preliminary studies, the team suggested that the Mesopotamian boat most likely became lodged in the loose soil of the Euphrates riverbank and, over time, was covered with silt and sediment. From the boat’s archaeological context, the team determined that it is likely around 4,000 years old, which would place it toward the end of the Ur III Period (c. 2112–2004 B.C.E.) or the beginning of the Isin-Larsa Period (c. 2004–1763 B.C.E.). Due to fear of additional damage, the team covered the boat in a clay and plaster shell before excavating it completely. The boat is expected to be brought to the Iraq Museum in Baghdad where it will be studied and displayed.

Aerial view showing the outline of the Uruk boat. Courtesy German Archaeological Institute.

Ancient Uruk

The Mesopotamian city of Uruk—Unug in Sumerian—was one of the oldest and most powerful cities in the land of Sumer (southern Iraq). Although in antiquity the city sat along the banks of the Euphrates River, Uruk is now covered in sand, the bed of the Euphrates having long ago shifted its course. The city rose to great power in the fourth millennium and, for a time, it was possibly the largest city in the ancient world. According to the Epic of Gilgamesh , Uruk was also the royal seat of the tale’s eponymous mythical king. As described in the epic (tablet 11), Gilgamesh met an immortal man named Utnapishtim, who had been instructed by the gods to build a giant circular boat to save himself from a flood that would be sent by the gods. In the 1800s, scholars proposed that Uruk could be the biblical city of Erech, the second city built by Nimrod in Genesis 10:10.

Read more in Biblical Archaeology Daily:

The Rebirth of Archaeology in Iraq

How Did Noah Build the Ark?

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library:

The Galilee Boat—2,000-Year-Old Hull Recovered Intact

Was Noah’s Ark a Sewn Boat? Not a BAS Library or All-Access Member yet? Join today.

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Ancient Mesopotamia 101

Ancient Mesopotamia proved that fertile land and the knowledge to cultivate it was a fortuitous recipe for wealth and civilization. Learn how this "land between two rivers" became the birthplace of the world's first cities, advancements in math and science, and the earliest evidence of literacy and a legal system.

Anthropology, Archaeology

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Related Resources

4,000-Year-Old Mesopotamian Boat Near Uruk Rescued

• Read Later  

4,000 years ago, a boat sank onto the bed of a channel of the Euphrates River, near the ancient city of Uruk. Now, archaeologists working in modern-day southern Iraq have been forced to conduct an emergency rescue excavation in order to protect its remains.

Discovering a Mesopotamian Boat in the Desert

The team of Iraqi-German archaeologists, from both the Orient Department of the German Archaeological Institute and the Iraqi German Mission of the State Board of Antiquities discovered the boat during documentation of the buffer zone surrounding the ruins of Uruk, also known as Warka in Arabic, back in 2018.

The boat was originally made out of palm leaves, wood and reed. It was then covered in bitumen , also known as tar or asphaltum, a semi-solid kind of petroleum which was used in Mesopotamia in the construction of buildings and for waterproofing reed boats. According to ThoughtCo . “ bitumen is a “naturally-occurring organic byproduct of decomposed plants” which humans have used for at least 40,000 years.

• The Great City of Uruk Became Sumerian Powerhouse of Technology, Architecture and Culture
• The White Temple and the Great Ziggurat in the Mesopotamian City of Uruk

A reconstruction of how an ancient Mesopotamian city could have looked. ( Jeff Brown Graphics )

At the time of discovery, the ancient Mesopotamian boat was photogrammetrically documented. However, being located near road traffic, the team decided that it was imperative to conduct an archaeological rescue mission to ensure the preservation of these unique remains. The boat was 7 meters (23 ft) long and 1.4 meters (4.59 ft) wide, and was buried in sediment after it sank to the bottom of the river 4,000 years ago.

The remains are particularly fragile, although surprisingly well-preserved, even though they had been partially exposed over recent years and were visible above ground. The organic remains, as in the palm leaves, wood and reed, have decomposed over time, but their imprint is still visible today within the bitumen. Arkeonews reported that during the excavations, “the top of the boat was covered with clay and plaster shell to stabilize it, and thus it was possible to save the entire boat .”

Ancient Mesopotamian boat structure visible from above. (Mayssoun Iss / Deutsches Archäologisches Institut )

What’s a Boat Doing in the Middle of the Desert?

It may not look like it today, but Uruk was once the largest human settlement in southern Mesopotamia. These days, the remains of the city can be found in a dusty desert, several kilometers east of the present-day Euphrates River. 150 miles (241 km) south of Baghdad, Uruk was built next to what is now the dried-up remains of a channel of the ancient river.

This area was once home to some of the world’s oldest cities, which grew up around fundamental water sources and irrigation projects, and, as Apollo Magazine has described, Uruk itself was once “surrounded by freshwater reed marshes, fertile alluvial soil, and waterways giving access to neighboring towns and the Persian Gulf.” Hence the sunken boat.

Archaeologists believe that Uruk-Warka is one of the world’s first cities, within the area which the Greeks named Mesopotamia, a word meaning “the land between rivers” due to its location between the Euphrates River to the west and the Tigris River to the east.

History of Uruk: A City of Firsts

As described by Apollo Magazine , “ Uruk was home to thousands of people whose lives were based on fishing and the herding of cattle, sheep and goats, together with the cultivation of wheat, barley, apples, figs, and groves of date palms. The city was the biggest of the settlements that had developed across a landscape of flood plains formed by branches of the Tigris and Euphrates in the southern half of what is often termed Mesopotamia.”

Uruk has been remembered as a city of firsts. The first real city, the first example of architecture made in stone, home of the first ziggurat, the location where writing originated, and the first city to create the cylinder seal . By about 2900 BC, Uruk is believed to have been home to up to 80,000 people, living within the walled city which covered about 6 km2 (2.32 square miles).

Over time, and thanks to the effects of climate change , the Euphrates channel dried up, while the main river itself also shifted course and moved further away. After a period of constant warfare, there was a devastating drought around 2250 BC, after which time the importance of not just Uruk , but all of southern Mesopotamia, declined. The ancient city continued to be sparsely inhabited until the Islamic conquest of circa 633 to 638 AD when it was completely abandoned.

Current-day remains of the ancient city of Uruk. (SAC Andy Holmes / OGL v1.0 )

German-Led Excavations at Uruk

The first excavations of Uruk -Warka were conducted in the 1850s by the British explorer William Loftus. For want of the exciting discoveries being made in other northern Mesopotamian sites, he soon gave up, and since 1912, the archaeological site has been excavated by a long term project led by the German Archaeological Institute.

In December 2021, Al-Monitor reported that various European archaeological teams were making important discoveries in Iraq. According to Laith Majid Hussein, director of the Iraqi State Board of Antiquities and Heritage, these European archaeologists are actively training Iraqi archaeologists in projects throughout the country, in the hopes of creating “a generation of well experienced and professional excavators.”

• Ancient Mesopotamia and the Rise of Civilization
• A Functional and Fertile Crescent: Technological Advancements in the Cradle of Civilization

The Mesopotamian boat excavation is one such project. A very small percentage of ancient Uruk has actually been excavated so far, most of it being made up of mud-brick architecture. Many of the findings which have come to light at Uruk since the German project began in 1912 were published in a book entitled Uruk: First City of the Ancient World .

After many decades of conflict and looting, keeping in mind that until 1969 it was common practice to divide finds between foreign excavators and Iraq, the archaeological landscape in Iraq appears to be changing. The recently excavated Mesopotamian boat has been transferred to the Iraq Museum in Baghdad for conservation and further analysis, in keeping with current Iraqi antiquities laws.

Top image: Ancient Mesopotamian boat unearthed near Uruk. Source: Julia Nador - Deutsches Archäologisches Institut / CC-BY-NC-ND

By Cecilia Bogaard

The video is loaded with a lot of information to study. Much appreciated.

Cecilia Bogaard is one of the editors, researchers and writers on Ancient Origins. With an MA in Social Anthropology, and degree in Visual Communication (Photography), Cecilia has a passion for research, content creation and editing, especially as related to the... Read More

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The Evolution of Sail Boats: Discovering the Inventor and Origins

Alex Morgan

The sailboat, an incredible mode of transportation propelled by the wind, has a rich history that dates back thousands of years. The development of sailboats can be traced through various civilizations and time periods. Let’s explore the history and evolution of sailboats, from their early developments to the modern designs we see today.

Early Developments:

The concept of using sails to harness wind power for navigation has been present since ancient times. Early civilizations such as the Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Mesopotamians made significant contributions to the development of sailing techniques. These early sailboats used simple square sails and were primarily used for river and coastal navigation.

Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia:

Ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians were among the first civilizations to use sailboats for trade and transportation. The Nile River in Egypt and the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in Mesopotamia provided the perfect environments for early sailing vessels to flourish.

Chinese Sailing Innovations:

In ancient China, sailors made remarkable advancements in sailing technology. They developed innovations such as the sternpost rudder, multiple masts, and watertight compartments, which greatly improved the efficiency and stability of sailboats.

Exploration and Trade:

During the Age of Exploration, sailors from different nations set sail on epic voyages, discovering new lands and establishing trade routes. Portuguese navigators, Dutch shipbuilders, and explorers from various countries played a vital role in advancing sailboat design and construction during this era.

Famous Sailboat Inventors:

Throughout history, several notable civilizations and cultures contributed to the invention and evolution of sailboats. Ancient Egyptians were known for their advanced shipbuilding techniques, while the Phoenicians were renowned for their maritime skills and expertise. Chinese inventors also made significant contributions, with their advancements in shipbuilding and navigation techniques. Portuguese navigators, such as Vasco da Gama, made groundbreaking voyages that shaped the future of sailboat travel. The Dutch, with their expertise in shipbuilding, created innovative designs that greatly improved sailing capabilities.

The Evolution of Sailboats:

Sailboats have evolved tremendously over time. From the early square-rigged sails to the introduction of lateen sails, technological advancements improved the efficiency and maneuverability of sailboats. The development of clipper ships in the 19th century led to faster and more efficient long-distance voyages. Today, modern sailboats feature advanced materials, rigging systems, and navigation technologies, making them versatile and capable of various sailing conditions.

As we explore the history and evolution of sailboats, we gain a greater appreciation for the ingenuity and skill of ancient civilizations and the continuous advancements that have shaped the sailboats we know today.

Key takeaway:

• Sail boats have a rich history: The development of sail boats can be traced back to ancient civilizations such as Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China. Exploration and trade played a major role in the advancement of sail boat technology.
• Famous inventors and contributors: Ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, Chinese inventors, Portuguese navigators, and Dutch shipbuilders all made significant contributions to the invention and evolution of sail boats.
• The evolution of sail boats: From square rigged sails to lateen sails, clipper ships, and modern sail boats, the design and capabilities of sail boats have evolved over time to meet the needs of navigation and exploration.

History of Sail Boats

Take a journey through the captivating history of sailboats as we explore their origins and advancements. From ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia to Chinese sailing innovations, and the era of exploration and trade, each sub-section bears witness to the remarkable development of these majestic vessels. Unveiling early developments and sharing intriguing facts, this section unravels the fascinating tale behind the sailboat’s invention, inviting you to immerse yourself in the rich maritime past.

Early Developments

Early developments in sail boats can be traced back to ancient civilizations such as Egypt , Mesopotamia , and China . These civilizations were pioneers in sail boat construction, making advancements in sail boat technology using wind power and simple square sails on wooden masts for transportation, fishing, and trade. The Egyptians, with their knowledge of wind and water currents, created efficient sail boats that played a crucial role in trade and exploration as they navigated the Nile River and the Mediterranean Sea. The Phoenicians further enhanced sail boat development by introducing multiple masts and triangular lateen sails, improving maneuverability and speed for exploring new territories and expanding trade networks. Meanwhile, ancient Chinese inventors brought innovations such as the stern rudder and watertight compartments to sail boat technology, revolutionizing sail boat design and influencing future maritime technology. These early developments laid the foundation for the evolution of sailing vessels, shaping naval exploration, trade, and transportation. Studying the innovations of ancient civilizations helps us understand the origins of sail boats and their significant impact on human history.

Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia

Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia used sail boats for transportation, exploration, and trade. The Egyptians were skilled sailors who utilized wind power to navigate the Nile River and the Red Sea. They could travel longer distances and carry larger quantities of goods.

In Mesopotamia, sail boats were also prevalent. The Sumerians , in particular, were known for their advancements in boat-building techniques. They constructed sail boats with a keel and multiple masts for stability and efficient sailing. These boats were used for transportation and trade along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers .

The sail boats of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia were made from reeds, wood, or papyrus. They used square-rigged sails attached to the mast to harness the wind’s power. These early developments in sail boat technology paved the way for future sailing innovations and exploration.

The advancements made by the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians in sail boat design and navigation laid the foundation for seafaring civilizations and expanded trade networks in the ancient world. Their sailing innovations continue to influence modern sail boat designs and maritime traditions.

Chinese Sailing Innovations

The Chinese were pioneers in sailing innovations, introducing various advancements that greatly improved the functionality and safety of sailboats. One of these innovations was the development of stern mounted rudder systems , which replaced the traditional side-mounted steering oars. By incorporating this innovation, Chinese sailors were able to enhance maneuverability and control of their vessels.

Another significant contribution made by the Chinese was the implementation of watertight bulkheads in their sailboats. These compartments divided the hull into separate sections, effectively reducing the risk of sinking in the event of hull damage. The watertight bulkheads not only increased the safety of the sailors but also ensured that the boat remained afloat during voyages, enhancing overall safety at sea.

The Chinese were early adopters of multi-masted ships , utilizing multiple sails and masts to increase the speed and stability of their sailboats. This innovation improved sail handling and overall performance, allowing Chinese sailors to navigate more efficiently through various wind conditions.

Among their impressive advancements, Chinese inventors also developed the magnetic compass . This invention revolutionized navigation at sea, as it provided sailors with an accurate means of determining their direction. With the magnetic compass, Chinese sailors were able to explore new maritime routes and engage in more reliable trade, contributing to the expansion of their maritime empire.

Exploration and Trade

Sail boats played a crucial role in the connection of regions and the facilitation of exploration and trade. They allowed explorers to venture into uncharted waters, expanding their knowledge and discovering new trade routes. The transportation of valuable goods like spices, silk, and precious metals by sail boats contributed to the flourishing of trade. Sail boats aided merchants in establishing trade networks, which resulted in prosperous port cities and trading empires.

Exploration and trade not only influenced economic prosperity, but also led to cultural exchanges that diffused ideas, technologies, and artistic styles. The efficiency and maneuverability of sail boats greatly improved long-distance trade, thereby boosting economic prosperity. During the Age of Exploration , sail boats played a vital role in facilitating exploration by connecting explorers with distant civilizations.

Trade via sail boats faced challenges such as storms, piracy, and unfamiliar waters. Navigational skills and cartographic advancements were crucial in aiding explorers and traders to accurately map their routes. Ultimately, the exploration and trade during this period laid the foundation for the globalization and interconnected world that we live in today. Sail boats revolutionized exploration and trade by connecting people, cultures, and economies globally.

Famous Sail Boat Inventors

From the ancient Egyptians to Dutch shipbuilders, this section delves into the fascinating world of famous sailboat inventors. Discover the innovative contributions of these historical figures as we explore the ingenuity behind their sailboat designs. With each sub-section highlighting a different group of inventors, be prepared to travel through time and across cultures to uncover the remarkable individuals who shaped the evolution of sailboats. Hold on tight as we set sail on this captivating journey of innovation and discovery .

Ancient Egyptians

The Ancient Egyptians played a significant role in sailboat history. They had a deep understanding of sailing and made important contributions to sailboat design and innovation.

The Ancient Egyptians made remarkable contributions to sailboat design and navigation. Their expertise in shipbuilding, use of square rigged sails, and development of papyrus boats greatly influenced the evolution of sailboats throughout history. The legacy of the Ancient Egyptians continues to inspire and inform modern sailboat design and technology.

Phoenicians

The Phoenicians were skilled sailors and shipbuilders who made significant advancements in sail boats. Here are some key points about the Phoenicians and their contributions:

– The Phoenicians established colonies and trading routes in the Mediterranean Sea .

– They built sturdy galleys with multiple rows of oars for propulsion.

– Phoenician ships were constructed using advanced woodworking techniques, enhancing their strength and durability .

– They developed square sails, allowing their ships to sail against the wind by tacking at an angle.

– Steering oars provided greater maneuverability and control.

– Their seafaring skills and knowledge expanded trade networks and cultural influences across the Mediterranean .

Fact: Phoenician ships played a crucial role in spreading their civilization and facilitating the exchange of goods and ideas between civilizations. They were integral to maritime history.

Chinese Inventors

Chinese inventors have made significant contributions to sailboat development. Chinese inventors like Su Song have played a crucial role in advancing sailboats and impacting maritime history. Su Song , an ancient Chinese inventor, improved the sailing compass, aiding accurate navigation. Chinese inventor Zhu Yu revolutionized shipbuilding with watertight compartments, promoting stability and preventing flooding. Another Chinese inventor, Shen Kuo , enhanced sailboat maneuverability with stern-mounted rudders. These inventions by Chinese inventors have enabled exploration and trade.

In addition to sailboats, Chinese inventors like Su Song made strides in other scientific and technological fields during the Song Dynasty, constructing the “Cosmic Engine” clock tower that provided information on celestial observations, weather patterns, and tidal movements. Chinese inventors have played a significant role in shaping the advancements in various areas of innovation.

Portuguese Navigators

The Portuguese navigators played a significant role in the history of sail boats. They were renowned for their exploration and seafaring skills. Portuguese navigators , like Ferdinand Magellan and Vasco da Gama , embarked on daring voyages to find new trade routes. They used sail boats as their primary mode of transportation. Their navigational expertise and advanced shipbuilding techniques allowed them to navigate vast oceans and reach distant lands. Portuguese navigators opened up new trade routes to Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Their contributions to sail boat development revolutionized maritime exploration and trade.

When learning about sail boat history, it’s important to recognize the pivotal role of Portuguese navigators . Their bravery, navigational skills, and shipbuilding techniques paved the way for exploring and colonizing new territories. The voyages of Ferdinand Magellan and Vasco da Gama have left a lasting impact in history. The accomplishments of these Portuguese navigators continue to inspire sailors and explorers across generations.

Dutch Shipbuilders

Dutch shipbuilders played a significant role in the evolution of sail boats. They were innovative and skilled , known for developing the fluyt , a type of sailing vessel commonly used for trade in the 17th century.

These Dutch shipbuilders were experts in constructing efficient, seaworthy, and cost-effective ships. They pioneered new building methods and designs that improved the speed and maneuverability of sail boats. Their expertise allowed them to build ships that could carry larger cargo loads , resulting in increased trade and economic growth.

The influence of Dutch shipbuilders extended beyond their country. Other maritime nations adopted their shipbuilding techniques, further advancing the industry. Dutch ships were sought after and considered some of the world’s finest at the time.

The craftsmanship and innovations of Dutch shipbuilders were crucial in shaping the history of sail boats. Their contributions paved the way for future advancements in shipbuilding technology, making sailing more efficient and accessible for exploration, trade, and transportation .

The Evolution of Sail Boats

As sailboats gracefully navigate across the open waters, it’s fascinating to explore the evolution of these majestic vessels. In this section, we’ll embark on a journey through time and delve into the rich history of sailboats. From the iconic square rigged sails to the innovation of lateen sails, we’ll unearth the stories behind these ingenious designs. We’ll uncover the allure of clipper ships and the advancements that have brought us modern sailboats. Get ready to set sail on a captivating exploration of the evolution of sailboats!

Square Rigged Sails

Passing on the task

Lateen Sails

The lateen sails were an important innovation in sailboat technology. Here are some key points about lateen sails:

– Origin: Developed in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, the lateen sails were first used in the Mediterranean.

– Design: Lateen sails are triangular and attach to a long yard or boom. They are rigged at an angle to the mast for better maneuverability and efficiency.

– Advantages: Lateen sails allow sailors to sail closer to the wind and harness wind power more effectively. This enhances maneuverability in narrow waterways and areas with unpredictable winds.

– Wide Usage: Various civilizations, including the Arabs, Persians, Byzantines, and later European sailors during the Age of Exploration, widely adopted lateen sails.

– Trade and Exploration: Lateen sails greatly facilitated trade and exploration, enabling sailors to travel longer distances and reach new destinations.

– Continued Influence: The impact of lateen sails can still be seen in modern sailboat designs, particularly in small recreational boats and traditional dhow sailing vessels in the Middle East.

The development and widespread use of lateen sails had a significant impact on sailboat technology and the history of navigation.

Clipper Ships

Clipper ships were renowned in the 19th century for their sleek and fast sailboats, making them the perfect choice for long-distance trade and transportation. These ships were characterized by three distinct features.

First and foremost, clipper ships boasted narrow and sharp hulls that allowed them to effortlessly slice through the water, resulting in remarkable speed. The hulls were expertly constructed using durable materials such as iron , offering increased resistance against potential damage.

Another noteworthy aspect of clipper ships was their abundance of sails. Equipped with multiple masts, these ships utilized square-rigged sails on the lower masts and fore-and-aft sails on the upper masts, including the iconic “clipper” or “racing” sails. This innovative sail configuration further amplified the ships’ speed and maneuverability by effectively harnessing wind from various angles.

Clipper ships were designed with a relatively smaller cargo capacity . This intentional limitation allowed them to prioritize their primary function of swiftly and securely transporting high-value merchandise like tea, spices, and luxury goods. By carrying lighter loads, these ships maintained their outstanding speed and performance, making them exceptionally well-suited for trade routes with stringent schedules.

Modern Sail Boats

Modern sailboats have advanced in design, technology, and performance. Key features and innovations that characterize modern sailboats include:

1. High-tech materials: Modern sailboats use lightweight and durable materials like carbon fiber and composites, enhancing performance and speed.

2. Sail designs: Advanced computer modeling and design techniques have led to efficient and versatile sails. Sail shapes and sizes can be optimized for different wind conditions, improving speed and maneuverability.

3. Efficient hull designs: Modern sailboats have sleek and streamlined hull designs that minimize drag and resistance, enabling them to glide through the water more efficiently.

4. Hydraulic and electric systems: Many modern sailboats have hydraulic and electric systems that make handling sails and other equipment easier and more efficient. This allows for precise control and adjustment of various sail functions.

5. Advanced navigation and communication systems: GPS, chartplotters, and radar systems have revolutionized navigation on modern sailboats. These systems provide accurate positioning, weather information, and route planning, enhancing safety and efficiency.

6. Integrated safety features: Modern sailboats often come equipped with safety features like man-overboard systems, emergency beacons, and liferafts, ensuring the well-being of crew members during emergencies.

When choosing a modern sailboat, consider factors such as the intended use (racing, cruising, or both), size, and desired performance characteristics. It’s important to find a sailboat that suits your specific needs and preferences.

Some Facts About Who Invented The Sail Boat:

• ✅ The first model of a ship under sail appeared in ancient Mesopotamia between 5500 and 5000 BCE. (Source: Boating Genie)
• ✅ The concept of using a sail likely started as a coincidence when someone held a piece of animal skin up to the wind and noticed it made their raft move faster. (Source: Boating Genie)
• ✅ The boat’s stability became a challenge, which was overcome with the invention of the keel, a flat blade that balanced the boat and prevented capsizing. (Source: Boating Genie)
• ✅ The development of watertight hulls allowed for the construction of larger sailing ships capable of carrying more loads. (Source: Boating Genie)
• ✅ Sailing has played a crucial role in the development of civilization, providing greater mobility for trade, food search, transport, and warfare. (Source: Boating Genie)

Frequently Asked Questions

1. who invented the sailboat and when.

Sailing boats have a long history that dates back to ancient times, but the first sailboat as we know it today appeared in ancient Mesopotamia between 5500 and 5000 BCE.

2. What materials were used to make the sails of early sailboats?

The Egyptians, one of the earliest sailing civilizations, used woven straw, linen, or hemp coated with tar to make the sails of their boats.

3. What was the role of the Water Club of Cork in the development of sailing?

The Water Club of Cork, founded in Ireland in 1720, was the first nautical club. It played a significant role in promoting and advancing sailing, marking the beginning of amateur sailing.

4. How did Chinese junk ships contribute to the history of sailing boats?

Chinese junk ships were highly advanced in terms of size, speed, strength, and maneuverability. They developed important sailing technologies such as mounted steering and the use of triangular sails, which allowed for advanced sailing maneuvers and eliminated the reliance on seasonal winds.

5. Who were the ancient mesopotamians and what was their contribution to sailing?

The ancient Mesopotamians were one of the early civilizations that used sailing boats. They played a crucial role in the evolution of civilization by developing the concept of sailing and building the first model of a ship under sail.

6. Can I experience sailing firsthand by booking a sailing day trip?

Yes, you can book a sailing day trip to experience sailing and enjoy the beauty of being on the water. Many sailing tour companies offer various options for individuals to explore sailing.

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Mesopotamia

By: History.com Editors

Updated: April 24, 2023 | Original: November 30, 2017

Mesopotamia is a region of southwest Asia in the Tigris and Euphrates river system that benefitted from the area’s climate and geography to host the beginnings of human civilization. Its history is marked by many important inventions that changed the world, including the concept of time, math, the wheel, sailboats, maps and writing. Mesopotamia is also defined by a changing succession of ruling bodies from different areas and cities that seized control over a period of thousands of years.

Where is Mesopotamia?

Mesopotamia is located in the region now known as the Middle East, which includes parts of southwest Asia and lands around the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It is part of the Fertile Crescent , an area also known as “Cradle of Civilization” for the number of innovations that arose from the early societies in this region, which are among some of the earliest known human civilizations on earth.

The word “mesopotamia” is formed from the ancient words “meso,” meaning between or in the middle of, and “potamos,” meaning river. Situated in the fertile valleys between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the region is now home to modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, Turkey and Syria .

Mesopotamian Civilization

Humans first settled in Mesopotamia in the Paleolithic era. By 14,000 B.C., people in the region lived in small settlements with circular houses.

Five thousand years later, these houses formed farming communities following the domestication of animals and the development of agriculture, most notably irrigation techniques that took advantage of the proximity of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

Agricultural progress was the work of the dominant Ubaid culture, which had absorbed the Halaf culture before it.

Ancient Mesopotamia

These scattered agrarian communities started in the northern part of the ancient Mesopotamian region and spread south, continuing to grow for several thousand years until forming what modern humans would recognize as cities, which were considered the work of the Sumer people.

Uruk was the first of these cities, dating back to around 3200 B.C. It was a mud brick metropolis built on the riches brought from trade and conquest and featured public art, gigantic columns and temples. At its peak, it had a population of some 50,000 citizens.

Sumerians are also responsible for the earliest form of written language, cuneiform, with which they kept detailed clerical records.

By 3000 B.C., Mesopotamia was firmly under the control of the Sumerian people. Sumer contained several decentralized city-states—Eridu, Nippur, Lagash, Uruk, Kish and Ur.

The first king of a united Sumer is recorded as Etana of Kish. It’s unknown whether Etana really existed, as he and many of the rulers listed in the Sumerian King List that was developed around 2100 B.C. are all featured in Sumerian mythology as well.

Etana was followed by Meskiaggasher, the king of the city-state Uruk. A warrior named Lugalbanda took control around 2750 B.C.

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Gilgamesh, the legendary subject of the Epic of Gilgamesh , is said to be Lugalbanda’s son. Gilgamesh is believed to have been born in Uruk around 2700 B.C.

The Epic of Gilgamesh is considered to be the earliest great work of literature and the inspiration for some of the stories in the Bible. In the epic poem, Gilgamesh goes on an adventure with a friend to the Cedar Forest, the land of the Gods in Mesopotamian mythology. When his friend is slain, Gilgamesh goes on a quest to discover the secret of eternal life, finding: "Life, which you look for, you will never find. For when the gods created man, they let death be his share, and life withheld in their own hands."

King Lugalzagesi was the final king of Sumer, falling to Sargon of Akkad, a Semitic people, in 2334 B.C. They were briefly allies, conquering the city of Kish together, but Lugalzagesi’s mercenary Akkadian army was ultimately loyal to Sargon.

Sargon and the Akkadians

The Akkadian Empire existed from 2234-2154 B.C. under the leadership of the now-titled Sargon the Great. It was considered the world’s first multicultural empire with a central government.

Little is known of Sargon’s background, but legends give him a similar origin to the Biblical story of Moses. He was at one point an officer who worked for the king of Kish, and Akkadia was a city that Sargon himself established. When the city of Uruk invaded Kish, Sargon took Kish from Uruk and was encouraged to continue with conquest.

Sargon expanded his empire through military means, conquering all of Sumer and moving into what is now Syria. Under Sargon, trade beyond Mesopotamian borders grew, and architecture became more sophisticated, notably the appearance of ziggurats, flat-topped buildings with a pyramid shape and steps.

The final king of the Akkadian Empire, Shar-kali-sharri, died in 2193 B.C., and Mesopotamia went through a century of unrest, with different groups struggling for control.

Among these groups were the Gutian people, barbarians from the Zagros Mountains. The Gutian rule is considered a disorderly one that caused a severe downturn in the empire’s prospects.

In 2100 B.C. the city of Ur attempted to establish a dynasty for a new empire. The ruler of Ur-Namma, the king of the city of Ur, brought Sumerians back into control after Utu-hengal, the leader of the city of Uruk, defeated the Gutians.

Under Ur-Namma, the first code of law in recorded history, The Code of Ur-Nammu, appeared. Ur-Namma was attacked by both the Elamites and the Amorites and defeated in 2004 B.C.

The Babylonians

Choosing Babylon as the capital, the Amorites took control and established Babylonia .

Kings were considered deities and the most famous of these was Hammurabi , who ruled 1792–1750 B.C. Hammurabi worked to expand the empire, and the Babylonians were almost continually at war.

Hammurabi’s most famous contribution is his list of laws, better known as the Code of Hammurabi , devised around 1772 B.C.

Hammurabi’s innovation was not just writing down the laws for everyone to see, but making sure that everyone throughout the empire followed the same legal codes, and that governors in different areas did not enact their own. The list of laws also featured recommended punishments to ensure that every citizen had the right to the same justice.

In 1750 B.C. the Elamites conquered the city of Ur. Together with the control of the Amorites, this conquest marked the end of Sumerian culture.

The Hittites

The Hittites, who were centered around Anatolia and Syria, conquered the Babylonians around 1595 B.C.

Smelting was a significant contribution of the Hittites, allowing for more sophisticated weaponry that lead them to expand the empire even further. Their attempts to keep the technology to themselves eventually failed, and other empires became a match for them.

The Hittites pulled out shortly after sacking Babylon, and the Kassites took control of the city. Hailing from the mountains east of Mesopotamia, their period of rule saw immigrants from India and Europe arriving, and travel sped up thanks to the use of horses with chariots and carts.

The Kassites abandoned their own culture after a couple of generations of dominance, allowing themselves to be absorbed into Babylonian civilization.

The Assyrians

The Assyrian Empire under the leadership of Ashur-uballit I rose around 1365 B.C. in the areas between the lands controlled by the Hittites and the Kassites.

Around 1220 B.C., King Tukulti-Ninurta I aspired to rule all of Mesopotamia and seized Babylon. The Assyrian Empire continued to expand over the next two centuries, moving into modern-day Palestine and Syria.

Under the rule of Ashurnasirpal II in 884 B.C., the empire created a new capitol, Nimrud, built from the spoils of conquest and brutality that made Ashurnasirpal II a hated figure.

His son Shalmaneser spent the majority of his reign fighting off an alliance between Syria, Babylon and Egypt, and conquering Israel . One of his sons rebelled against him, and Shalmaneser sent another son, Shamshi-Adad, to fight for him. Three years later, Shamshi-Adad ruled.

A new dynasty began in 722 B.C. when Sargon II seized power. Modeling himself on Sargon the Great, he divided the empire into provinces and kept the peace.

His undoing came when the Chaldeans attempted to invade and Sargon II sought an alliance with them. The Chaldeans made a separate alliance with the Elamites, and together they took Babylonia.

Sargon II lost to the Chaldeans but switched to attacking Syria and parts of Egypt and Gaza, embarking on a spree of conquest before eventually dying in battle against the Cimmerians from Russia.

Sargon II’s grandson Esarhaddon ruled from 681 to 669 B.C. and went on a destructive campaign of conquest through Ethiopia, Palestine and Egypt, destroying cities he rampaged through after looting them. Esarhaddon struggled to rule his expanded empire. A paranoid leader, he suspected many in his court of conspiring against him and had them killed.

His son Ashurbanipal is considered to be the final great ruler of the Assyrian empire. Ruling from 669 to 627 B.C., he faced a rebellion in Egypt, losing the territory, and from his brother, the king of Babylonia, whom he defeated. Ashurbanipal is best remembered for creating Mesopotamia’s first library in what is now Nineveh, Iraq. It is the world’s oldest known library, predating the Library of Alexandria by several hundred years.

Nebuchadnezzar

In 626 B.C. the throne was seized by Babylonian public official Nabopolassar, ushering in the rule of the Semitic dynasty from Chaldea. In 616 B.C. Nabopolassar attempted to take Assyria but failed.

His son Nebuchadnezzar reigned over the Babylonian Empire following an invasion effort in 614 B.C. by King Cyaxares of Media that pushed the Assyrians further away.

Nebuchadnezzar is known for his ornate architecture, especially the Hanging Gardens of Babylon , the Walls of Babylon and the Ishtar Gate. Under his rule, women and men had equal rights.

Nebuchadnezzar is also responsible for the conquest of Jerusalem , which he destroyed in 586 B.C., taking its inhabitants into captivity. He appears in the Old Testament because of this action.

The Persian Empire

Persian Emperor Cyrus II seized power during the reign of Nabonidus in 539 B.C. Nabonidus was such an unpopular king that Mesopotamians did not rise to defend him during the invasion.

Babylonian culture is considered to have ended under Persian rule, following a slow decline of use in cuneiform and other cultural hallmarks.

By the time Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire in 331 B.C., most of the great cities of Mesopotamia no longer existed and the culture had been long overtaken. Eventually, the region was taken by the Romans in A.D. 116 and finally Arabic Muslims in A.D. 651.

Mesopotamian Gods

Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, with followers worshipping several main gods and thousands of minor gods. The three main gods were Ea (Sumerian: Enki), the god of wisdom and magic, Anu (Sumerian: An), the sky god, and Enlil (Ellil), the god of earth, storms and agriculture and the controller of fates. Ea is the creator and protector of humanity in both the Epic of Gilgamesh and the story of the Great Flood. 

In the latter story, Ea made humans out of clay, but the God Enlil sought to destroy humanity by creating a flood. Ea had the humans build an ark and mankind was spared. If this story sounds familiar, it should; foundational Mesopotamian religious stories about the Garden of Eden, the Great Flood, and the Creation of the Tower of Babel found their way into the Bible, and the Mesopotamian religion influenced both Christianity and Islam.

Each Mesopotamian City had its own patron god or goddess, and most of what we know of them has been passed down through clay tablets describing Mesopotamian religious beliefs and practices. A painted terracotta plaque from 1775 B.C. gives an example of the sophistication of Babylonian art, portraying either the goddess Ishtar or her sister Ereshkigal, accompanied by night creatures.

Mesopotamian Art

While making art predates civilization in Mesopotamia, the innovations there include creating art on a larger scale, often in the context of their grandiose and complex architecture, and frequently employing metalwork.

One of the earliest examples of metalwork in art comes from southern Mesopotamia, a silver statuette of a kneeling bull from 3000 B.C. Before this, painted ceramics and limestone were the most common art forms.

Another metal-based work, a goat standing on its hind legs and leaning on the branches of a tree, featuring gold and copper along with other materials, was found in the Great Death Pit at Ur and dates to 2500 B.C.

Mesopotamian art often depicted its rulers and the glories of their lives. Also created around 2500 B.C. in Ur is the intricate Standard of Ur, a shell and limestone structure that features an early example of complex pictorial narrative, depicting a history of war and peace.

In 2230 B.C., Akkadian King Naram-Sin was the subject of an elaborate work in limestone that depicts a military victory in the Zagros Mountains and presents Naram-Sin as divine.

Among the most dynamic forms of Mesopotamian art are the reliefs of the Assyrian kings in their palaces, notably from Ashurbanipal’s reign around 635 B.C. One famous relief in his palace in Nimrud shows him leading an army into battle, accompanied by the winged god Assur.

Ashurbanipal is also featured in multiple reliefs that portray his frequent lion-hunting activity. An impressive lion image also figures into the Ishtar Gate in 585 B.C., during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II and fashioned from glazed bricks.

Mesopotamian art returned to the public eye in the 21st century when museums in Iraq were looted during conflicts there. Many pieces went missing, including a 4,300-year-old bronze mask of an Akkadian king, jewelry from Ur, a solid gold Sumerian harp, 80,000 cuneiform tablets and numerous other irreplaceable items.

Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization. Paul Kriwaczek . Ancient Mesopotamia. Leo Oppenheim . Ancient Mesopotamia: This History, Our History. University of Chicago . Mesopotamia 8000-2000 B.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art . 30,000 Years of Art. Editors at Phaidon . Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses. UPenn.edu .

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Top 11 Inventions and Discoveries of Mesopotamia

The cradle of civilization, Mesopotamia, was the birthplace of many valuable inventions and discoveries. It was here that agriculture began. Irrigation and farming were commonplace in this area because of the fertile land between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.

The invention of agriculture made it possible for humans to stay in the same place for a longer period of time without depending on hunting.

The earliest form of writing was invented in Mesopotamia as were the first means of transportation: the chariot and the sailboat. Most innovative ideas that we take for granted today were invented or discovered in Mesopotamia .

Here are the top 11 inventions and discoveries of ancient Mesopotamia :

11. The Wheel

The first wheel wasn’t used for transportation. The wheel was first invented as a potter’s wheel and was believed to have existed around 3500 BC.

Even though the wheel is believed to have first existed in ancient Mesopotamia, the oldest wheel named the Ljubljana Marshes Wheel was discovered in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, in 2002 and dates back 5,150 years.

The wheel was used as a luxurious form of transportation for the wealthy, but was also used for irrigation, pottery making, and milling. The invention of the chariot and other important innovations in history were based on the invention of the wheel.

10. The Chariot

Over time, humans learned to domesticate horses, bulls, and other useful animals and the invention of the chariot or carriage followed on from their domestication.

The chariot was the first means of personal transportation, and has been used for years in warfare, sport, and for general use. The structure of the earliest chariots was from light wood with a bentwood rim.

The first chariot appeared around 3200 BC in Mesopotamia and was adopted by almost every civilization until motorized transportation came into existence. Chariots were mainly used for personal transportation by royalty and the wealthy.

9. The Sailboat

Transportation by land was difficult and took an enormous amount of time. The Sumerians realized that transportation via sea would be a lot easier and more convenient. The first boat was invented and used on rivers and needed to be navigated by humans.

The first sailboat was a simple, primitive design and aided in trade and commerce. It was initially used to cross the Tigris and Euphrates rivers for fishing and to explore other areas.

The primitive sailboat was square in shape and the sail was made of cloth. The direction of the sailboat couldn’t be changed. If the wind didn’t blow in the direction they wanted to go, they had to wait for the wind to change in their favor.

8. The Plow

Humans learned to domesticate animals and use them to make daily life easier. In Mesopotamia, man first harnessed the ox and developed the first plow called the “ard.” The earliest plow was made of wood and was very heavy.

The major problem with the plow was that the dirt would stick to it and needed to be removed manually. It also did not work in thick grass. The invention of the plow in Mesopotamia helped the hunter-gatherer groups to stay in the same place and use agriculture for food rather than hunting.

The Mesopotamians developed the concept of time, dividing time units into 60 parts, which eventually led to 60-second minutes and 60-minute hours.

The Babylonians made an astronomical calculation in the base 60 system inherited from the Sumerians. The number 60 was chosen because it was easily divisible by six.

6. Astronomy and Astrology

The concept of astrology was developed during the Sumerian period when even everyday incidents had a spiritual meaning. It was believed that every good or bad thing happened for a reason.

Ancient astrologers observed the location of the planets and advised people in high social or political positions according to these observations. Astronomical mythology, like the concepts of the constellations such as Capricorn, Leo, and Sagittarius, was handed down to the Greeks by the Sumerians and Babylonians and is still in use today.

The constellations were also used in day-to-day activities. They were relied upon to mark the seasons for harvesting or sowing crops. They also mapped the movement of the sky, the sun, the stars, and the moon, and were used to predict celestial events like eclipses.

The oldest map was discovered in Babylonia around 2300 BC. Ancient cartography used in Babylonia were simple sketches on clay tablets. One clay map discovered in Mesopotamia illustrates the Akkadian region of Mesopotamia (present-day northern Iraq). It covers a small area and was mostly used as a city map for military campaigns, hunting, and trading.

Even though the map was first invented in Mesopotamia, Greek and Roman cartography became more advanced and the concept of a spherical earth developed by the Greek philosophers in 350 BC allowed geographers to develop the map further.

4. Mathematics

When the civilization began to flourish, people started to trade and they needed an accurate system to count the goods that they gave and received. The Sumerians were the first people on earth to develop the concept of counting.

They also developed the sexagesimal system, or base 60. The sexagesimal system helped to develop concepts like the 360-degree circle and the 12-month year. They used 12 knuckles to count on one hand and another five fingers on the other hand. The Babylonians used base 6 (our modern system uses base 10), where digits in the left column represent large values.

The concept of zero was developed by the Babylonians. People understood the value of having nothing, but the concept of numerical zero wasn’t invented before then. Many scholars believed that the concept of zero was developed by the Babylonians and followed and adapted by various civilizations throughout the world. Some also argue it was originally invented in India.

3. Urban Civilization

Often known as the cradle of civilization, Mesopotamian developed the concept of urbanization. For the first time in a history, humans started to settle in a specific place. The invention of agriculture made it possible to feed more people and animals living in a single location. People learned to trade, and the concept of taxes was developed.

Mesopotamia emerged as one of the first cities of the world to be built with sun-dried bricks. The urbanization in Mesopotamia started in the Uruk period (4300–3100 BC) and the largest settlement in the history of mankind ever to be built was done so using monumental mud-brick buildings around 3200 BC. The city was surrounded by huge walls built by King Gilgamesh.

2. The First Form of Writing: Cuneiform

The Sumerians developed the first form of writing called “cuneiform” to maintain business records. It was mostly used in trade, where merchants recorded information such as the amount of grain traded. The Mesopotamians also used writing to record daily events like astronomy.

Cuneiform evolved as a simple pictograph. For instance, the pictograph for a horse might be a small image of a horse. The writer had to drag the tip of a stylus across wet clay to create a shape. It was hard to remember every character and it would take 12 years for a person to learn to write in cuneiform.

The symbols were reduced to 600 words by 2900 BC and scribes (people who were hired to write) eventually changed the writing from a drawn image to a stamp or imprint using a reed stylus with a wedge-shaped tip. Cuneiform script was used by the Assyrians, Elamites, Hittites, Babylonians, and Akkadians for about 3,000 years.

1. Agriculture and Irrigation

Ancient Mesopotamian farmers cultivated wheat, barley, cucumbers, and other different foods and vegetables. They used stone hoes to plow the ground before the invention of the plow.

The Tigris and the Euphrates rivers that surrounded Mesopotamia made irrigation and farming a lot easier and more convenient. The Mesopotamians learned to control the flow of water from the river and used it to irrigate crops. During the main growing season, the flow of water was properly regulated. Each farmer was allowed a certain amount of water which was diverted from a canal into an irrigation ditch.

Most of the inventions and discoveries of the ancient Mesopotamians became more advanced in later civilizations. However, Mesopotamian inventions led to very basic things that were needed for humans to settle in a group such as writing, agriculture, and urban civilization.

Learn the inventions of other civilizations:

• Top 10 Ancient Roman Inventions
• Top 10 Inventions and Discoveries of Ancient Greece
• Top 18 Ancient Chinese Inventions and Discoveries
• Top 10 Inventions of the Mayan Civilization
• Top 10 Inventions and Discoveries of Ancient Egypt

Related posts:

• Top 12 Inventions and Discoveries of Ancient Babylonia
• Top 15 Most Important Events in Ancient Mesopotamia
• Top 12 Fascinating Facts about Ancient Mesopotamia

15 thoughts on “Top 11 Inventions and Discoveries of Mesopotamia”

What the flop are you talking about? This is a great website with tons of fantastic information. Which website are YOU looking at?

If yll think this was the oldest then who built the Aztec lines in Peru and the place named Puma Punku, The sphinx was not built by the Egyptians, where did the knowledge to build the pyramids come from?

The Egyptians were founded around 3100 BC, the Aztec lines or Nazca Lines in Peru were created c. 500 BCE to 500 CE and Puma Punku was built around 536 CE or later. The Mesopotamians (if we’re including the Sumerians) were founded in the 6th Millennium BCE, at least 3000 years before the Egyptians, and 5000 years before the Nazca Lines and the Puma Punku. For your latter question, I’ll let you google it and discover for yourself. If you’re interested on Mesopotamia, I recommend reading “Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia” by Stephen Bertman or some of Dr Samuel Kramer’s published works.

Excellent answer, thank you very much. Far more patient answer than an old one such as my I might supply. Sorry, got to get back to my stylus, those wet clay tablets won’t mark their selves.

Bruh its still technically counts in the history of the Sumerians

Can you please put what the inventions are being used for today? I have to do this poster, and it says you have to put what is it used for today, or what is used in its place.

Wheels are being used today for cars, water, milling, making flour(I think) and toys. Sailboats, are, well sailboats. There are some things for you. Hope I helped. :-)

Wow! That’s what I’m doing today too! Hopefully, it’s not too late :/

Sumerians used writing to keep track of data just like we do today. But of course, we also use writing when it comes to sending messages or something else! (They probably did too- Just not with electronics, they used tablets instead.) Plows are something that a TON of farmers in the world use the plow to loosen their soil. Sumerian farmers did too! ( Sumerians domesticated ‘bigger’ animals to tow/use the plow. It wouldn’t be really possible for something like a cat to carry a huge plow on it’s back. {The plow would have to be smaller}) Riding a canoe on the rivers was faster than by wagons, chariots, or any land transportation. So the Sumerians decided to invent ‘their own boat’, a different one… One that you can use on the ocean! They tried different ideas. And then they found the right one. It’s now called the “SailBoat”. Many people use it today! It’s mainly used for catching fish, or transportation, thanks to the “flag” that makes the journey calm.

( It’s probably too late…”

what did they use the pulley system for

This was a very helpful artical, but I just cant find where it mentions the pulley system.

The first written record of pulleys dates to the Sumerians of Mesopotamia in 1500 BCE, where ancient peoples were using ropes and pulleys for hoisting. That is, they used pulleys for pulling and lifting things.

They used rope pulleys for hoisting water. A pulley system makes it easier to lift an object than lifting the dead weight by hand. A single pulley essentially changes the direction of the pull or force applied.

I couldn’t find irrigation in here. Can you add it please?

Invention number 8 The Plow: Believe it or not – this invention is still being used in India, Pakistan and may be many other countries – IN THE SAME FORM OR SLIGHTLY MODIFIED FORM. I have used that Plow in that shape with Oxen in 1960s and 1970s!! It is amazing how long some inventions can survive. It also might prove another fact that lot of North Indians (so called Aryans) were actually driven out or migrated out of Mesopotemia thousands of years ago.

I believe that to state that things were invented in one area of the world is not correct anymore. The Mayan were also using the zero independently with out the influence of the Mesopotamians. Who knows what lies hidden under the oceans and the ice.

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Mesopotamian Ancient Basket Weaving Technology and the Sumerian Reed Industry

#1. Neolithic technology, especially technology involving the use of reeds and weaving, was highly advanced long before the beginning of Sumerian civilizations. Many of these technologies were based on 'basket weaving technology' and were involved in the creation of a wide variety of products from bitumen treated basket-buckets used in irrigation to large reed ships. #2. These advanced Neolithic technologies formed the bedrock, the foundation, for the emergence of these civilizations. These technologies were crucial, for example, to the development of irrigation and dredging the canals. #3. When more advanced technologies appeared such as copper, bronze, and fired bricks (many treated with bitumen), the earlier technologies played a supporting role and were involved in their development and their production. #4. Although new technologies emerged, they did not entirely replace the older technology which continued to be used in a variety of roles both traditional and in support of the new technologies. #5. There have been many misconceptions about the rise of civilization in Mesopotamia which has made it hard to grasp the 'big picture'. Housing made of reeds, for example, may have been much more widespread than previously thought and a huge fleet of reed boats and coracles made with reeds may have been as important, if not more important, than the large wooden ships that were developed to haul heavy cargoes and to import goods from distant ports. In addition, there was an extensive reed industry that existed from Neolithic times and continued with the Sumerian civilizations but this industry has not been properly identified.

Related Papers

The rise of the world's first civilization, that of Sumer in Mesopotamia, could not have occurred without a fully developed basket weaving technology that was available from the beginning. This technology may have reached a high point thousands of years earlier as shown by the Ain Ghazal statues which had a sophisticated woven reed core. While this was not the only developed technology at the time, it was crucial. In this article, I make two main points. #1. There is now clear physical evidence of basket weaving technology or reed craftsmanship (as the Sumerians also called it) long before the start of the Sumerian civilization. I list three examples of this evidence. #2. The Sumerians were able to use their highly developed reed craftsmanship to establish the world's first civilization in part because of their weaving skills and because they had access to an unlimited number of reeds, plus mud, clay, and bitumen. In this article, I cite numerous studies and experts to further my argument. I cover sea-going reed ships, irrigation, agriculture, home building, mass-produced bricks, the importation of copper, and more. I also include an appendix in which I list more than 100 words relating to basket weaving technology, words that were used for thousands of years in Mesopotamia, indicating the importance of this technology.

Sebastian Fink

It is clear from the fact that pottery had not been invented until late in the Neolithic era, that other tools and implements must have been fabricated during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN). Serge Svizzero points out in his quoted article that agriculture would have required a necessary set of support tools and containers to be successful; it is not enough to say that the Neolithic way of life occurred because of agriculture and the domestication of animals. In this article, I present direct and indirect evidence of Neolithic basketry to show that many of these implements could have been made using woven-fiber technology or basket weaving skills, a technology that may have been passed down from Upper Paleolithic societies. And I suggest these skills continued to be employed all during the Neolithic time period. Furthermore, I suggest these skills were passed on to the emerging civilizations in Mesopotamia and Egypt who made full use of this technology when needed.

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eloisa Casadei

Nur Mohammad`Babu

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Textile Terminologies from the Orient to the Mediterranean and Europe, 1000 BC to 1000 AD

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Ancient Mesopotamia

Mesopotamians and their daily lives

Ancient Mesopotamia Transportation

Mesopotamia was quite low on natural resources and they needed to trade for many of their day-to-day items. Some of the things they traded were Grain, Oils, and textiles, and in return, they got timber, wine, and precious metals and stones. Some merchants worked locally and just strapped their goods on their back or carried them in a sack; they would often trade small amounts of grain, meat, fish, and precious stones.

Others traveled from some parts of Mesopotamia to completely different regions such as Babylonia, Assyria, and Sumeria. They also had different means of transport for different types of goods.

The earliest known use of the wheel was a potter’s wheel that was used at Ur in Mesopotamia (part of modern day Iraq} as early as 3500 BC. The first use of the wheel for transportation was probably on Mesopotamian chariots in 3200 BC. It is interesting to note that wheels may have had industrial or manufacturing applications before they were used on vehicles.

During the Old Babylonian period (about 2000-1600 B.C.) merchants from southern Mesopotamia travelled to cities and distant lands to trade their goods. Many different types of transport were used for carrying goods from place to place. Merchants used several different methods for transporting their goods depending on what they were transporting. For example, grain was quite bulky and was best transported on a boat, whereas precious stones were likely to be small, so they could be transported on foot or by donkey.

They made the world’s first boats, using the canal system, for easy water borne transportation of people, goods, and cattle. They also engaged in deep-water seafaring, using a variety of ships to reach faraway lands; in search of metals, rare woods, and other materials. They produced many specialized sea vessels. Over land they used carts and chariots, as well as their air ships.

The Mesopotamians were clever people and used interesting types of boats. The Mesopotamians used three types of boats: wooden boats with a triangular sail, the turnip or Guffa boat which was shaped like a tub, made of reeds and covered with skin, and the kalakku which was a raft of timbers supported by inflated animal skins. The invention of the wheel by the Sumerians revolutionalized the transportation. Wagons could be used to carry heavy loads.

The rivers, Tigris and Euphrates, helped in water transportation of the goods. It was more economical. Wood went into the manufacture of boats, furniture and ships. As the boats had to face strong river currents, they were frequently damaged.

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Orcas sink sailing yacht in Strait of Gibraltar

An unknown number of orcas have sunk a sailing yacht after ramming it in Moroccan waters in the Strait of Gibraltar, Spain’s maritime rescue service said on Monday, a new attack in what has become a trend in the past four years.

The vessel Alboran Cognac, which measured 15 metres (49 feet) in length and carried two people, encountered the highly social apex predators, also known as killer whales, at 9 a.m. local time (0700 GMT) on Sunday, the service said.

The passengers reported feeling sudden blows to the hull and rudder before water started seeping into the ship. After alerting the rescue services, a nearby oil tanker took them onboard and transported them to Gibraltar.

The yacht was left adrift and eventually sank.

The incident is the latest example of  recurring orca rammings  around the Gibraltar Strait that separates Europe from Africa and off the Atlantic coast of Portugal and northwestern Spain.

Experts believe them to involve a subpopulation of about 15 individuals given the designation “Gladis.”

According to the research group GTOA, which tracks populations of the Iberian orca sub-species, there have been nearly 700 interactions since orca attacks on ships in the region were first reported in May 2020.

Researchers are unsure about the causes for the behaviour, with leading theories including it being a playful manifestation of the mammals’ curiosity, a social fad or the intentional targeting of what they perceive as competitors for their favourite prey, the local bluefin tuna.

Although known as killer whales, endangered orcas are part of the dolphin family. They can measure up to eight metres and weigh up to six tonnes as adults.

Orcas have sunk another vessel off the European coast. Why won't they stop ramming boats?

The orcas are at it again: for the seventh time in four years, a pod of whales has sunk a boat after ramming it in Moroccan waters off the Strait of Gibraltar. 

The 15 metre-long yacht Alborán Cognac, which carried two people, encountered the highly social apex predators at 9am local time on Sunday, Spain's maritime rescue service said.

The passengers reported feeling sudden blows to the hull and rudder before water started to seep into the sailboat. It is not known how many orcas were involved.

After alerting rescue services, a nearby oil tanker took them onboard and carried them to Gibraltar, a British overseas territory on Spain's southern coast.

Nothing could be done to save the sailboat, which drifted and eventually sank. 

It's the latest incident in what has become a trend of hundreds of interactions between orcas and boats since the "disruptive behaviour" was first reported in the region in May 2020. 

The origin of this new behaviour has baffled scientists, though the leading theory suggests this "social fad" began as a playful manifestation of the whales' curiosity.

Where have orcas interacted with boats?

The latest data from the Atlantic Orca Working Group (GTOA), an organisation that contributes to the animals' conservation and management, shows that there have been at least 673 interactions since 2020. 

GTOA defines interactions as instances when orcas react to the presence of approaching boats with or without physical contact. 

The map below shows the highest numbers of encounters from April to May 2024 took place off Spain's southern coast in the Strait of Gibraltar (red zones), with some lesser activity in surrounding areas (yellow zones). 

A 2022 peer-reviewed study published in the Marine Mammal Science journal found the orcas in these areas preferred interacting with sailboats — both monohulls (72 per cent) and catamarans (14 per cent) — with an average length of 12 metres.

A clear pattern emerged of orcas striking their rudders, while sometimes also scraping the hulls with their teeth. Such attacks often snapped the rudder, leaving the boat unable to navigate.

"The animals bumped, pushed and turned the boats," the authors of the report said. 

Adding this week's encounter, there have been seven reported cases of orcas damaging a boat so badly that it has sunk, though the people onboard were rescued safely each time.

In June 2023, a run-in with the giant mammals in the Strait of Gibraltar forced the crew competing in The Ocean Race to drop its sails and raise a clatter in an attempt to scare the approaching orcas off. 

No-one was injured, but Team JAJO skipper Jelmer van Beek said that it had been a "scary moment".

"Three orcas came straight at us and started hitting the rudders," he said.

"Impressive to see the orcas, beautiful animals, but also a dangerous moment for us as a team ... Luckily, after a few attacks, they went away."

After analysing 179 videos and photos of these types of interactions, which lasted on average 40 minutes, researchers concluded there was no reason to classify the events as intentionally hostile behaviour.

"The behaviour of orcas when interacting with boats is not identified as aggressive," they said.

"One of their main motivations has been identified as competition with boats for speed."

Still, the researchers of the study admitted they were not sure what triggered the novel behaviour in 2020.

"We are not yet certain what the origin of these interactions is, but it is still suspected that it could be a curious and playful behaviour," they wrote.

"[The behaviour] could be self-induced, or on the other hand it could be a behaviour induced by an aversive incident and therefore a precautionary behaviour."

Are the same orcas responsible for these incidents?

Out of around 49 orcas living in the Strait of Gibraltar, GTOA researchers found a total of 15 whales  from at least three different communities participated in the unusual interactions with boats between 2020 and 2022.

Most of those that engaged with greater intensity were juveniles, though it's unclear if others have since joined the group.

These giant mammals, which belong to the dolphin family, can measure up to eight metres and weigh up to six tonnes as adults.

The director of the Orca Behaviour Institute, Monika Wieland Shields, has said there is no evidence to prove the theory these whales were seeking vengeance against humans for a past trauma.

"While I'm sure it feels like an attack for the people on board, for the whales themselves, it really looks more like play behaviour," she said.

"There's something intriguing or entertaining to them about this [boat rudder] mechanism and they're just showing a lot of curiosity about it."

Ms Wieland said it's likely this new behaviour spread through the population as a kind of "social fad".

"Orcas are highly intelligent, very social animals, and with that comes a tendency to be curious about and explore your environment," she said.

"One thing that we see are these kind of fad behaviours that will appear in a certain population.

"One whale discovers something, they find it entertaining or interesting, or fun — it's some type of game. And then they will teach that to other members of their family group."

Are orcas dangerous to humans?

While orcas have earned their fearsome reputation for preying on other marine animals, there is no record of them killing humans in the wild. 

In captivity, orcas have killed four people since the 1990s, though it's unclear whether the deaths were accidental or deliberate attempts to cause harm.  

Ms Shields said she was worried the recent interactions between orcas and boats would skew people's perceptions of these mammals.

"I am concerned that people are going to react with fear, potentially injure or shoot at some of these whales," Ms Shields said.

"We really need to educate boaters about the best things that they can do to make themselves less attractive to the whales and the best case scenario would be the whales lose interest in this and move onto something less destructive."

Spain's Transport Ministry advises that whenever boats observe any changes in the behaviour of orcas — such as in their direction or speed — they should leave the area as soon as possible and avoid further disturbance to the animals.

The ministry also states every interaction between a ship and an orca must be reported to authorities.

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Orcas sink boat with two passengers on board in Strait of Gibraltar

Orcas attacked and sank a boat in the Strait of Gibraltar, prompting Spanish officials to issue a warning to sailors in case they ever encounter one of the giant sea mammals.

On Sunday, orcas sank a 10-meter-long boat with two passengers on board. The passengers, who were able to notify authorities in time, were rescued after receiving help from a nearby oil tanker and Moroccan authorities, states Salvamento Marítimo , Spain’s maritime rescue service, in a press release.

The boat sank near Cape Spartel, a promontory in Morocco near the entrance of the Strait of Gibraltar, a channel that connects the Mediterranean Sea  to the  Atlantic Ocean between Spain and Africa.

The country's Ministry of Transport and Sustainable Mobility prepared a list of things to do in case boats or yachts meet a pack of killer whales at the wrong place and at the wrong time.

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How to handle an orca encounter

According to the agency , people who encounter orcas while on a vessel should do the following:

• Don't go near the side of the boat. Move to a space in the middle of the vessel where they're protected from sudden movements.
• If the whales try interacting with the boat, don't stop the boat or turn off the motor. Move towards the coast or shallower waters.
• Report the event to officials, even if the boat doesn't take damage.

Why are whales attacking marine vessels?

For the past four years, hundreds of incidents have occurred between orcas and boats or yachts.

And interactions still remain a mystery, Alfredo López, a University of Santiago biologist, previously told USA TODAY.

However, the whales' reasoning for the attacks could be as innocent as playful curiosity or as nefarious as targeting the vessels they perceive as competition for food.

Graphics: Why are orcas attacking boats and sometimes sinking them?

Contributing: Ramon Padilla , USA TODAY

Julia is a trending reporter for USA TODAY. She has covered various topics, from local businesses and government in her hometown, Miami, to tech and pop culture.   You can follow her on  X, formerly Twitter ,  Instagram  and  TikTok : @juliamariegz

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Taylor Swift doubles up on Versace accessories for Lake Como boat ride with Travis Kelce

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When in Rome — or Lake Como, rather — dress as the Romans do.

Taylor Swift went for a double dose of Versace during a romantic boat ride with boyfriend Travis Kelce in Italy on Wednesday.

The 14-time Grammy winner carried the Italian luxury label’s small Medusa ’95 bag ($1,995) for the day date, matching the petite tote to her patent leather Gianni Ribbon Mary Jane flats ($925).

Versace Medusa ’95 Tote

Versace Gianni Ribbon Patent Leather Mary Janes

Continuing to lean into the neutral colors and classic, collegiate style staples that have become a hallmark of her “Tortured Poets Department” era , Swift wore a sleeveless black fit-and-flare minidress, A-line trench coat and her favorite vintage Cartier necklace for the couple’s outing on the lake.

Kelce coordinated with his lady love in black and white, choosing a checkered Junya Watanabe sweater ($1,285).

The pop superstar and the Kansas City Chiefs tight end —  who’ve been together since last summer — snuck in a private Como getaway between Swift’s European Eras Tour dates this past week, staying at the $21,000-per-night Villa Sola Cabiati on the Grand Hotel Tremezzo grounds.

Swift and Kelce, both 34, were also spotted enjoyed an evening stroll and candlelit supper during their stay — and Swifties quickly zeroed in on the Cupid-printed tee the NFL star chose for the occasion.

“I guess Travis just isn’t ready to move on from the fact that Tay removed ‘The Archer’ from the [Eras Tour] set list, one fan Swiftie  posted on X (formerly Twitter) , referring to the god of love’s bow and arrow.

The “Cruel Summer” singer’s record-breaking tour resumes in Stockholm today, while her beau’s set to head back to Kansas City for his annual music festival, Kelce Jam.

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